DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

Alimentary canal is straight tube running throughout the length of the body the whole of the alimentary canal is not uniform in diameterand the nature of the digestive wall is aldi different in different regions there fere it can be diveded inro the following parts .
Mouth is a crescentric aperture ventrl to the prostomium ditiuated in thefirstsegment or peristomium or buccal segmint.Buccal chamber mouth leds into a cavity called bucca; cvity or buccal chmber it is a short thinwalled chamber and extinds from first segment to the middle of the 3rd segment During movement earth buccal chamber with the help of muscular stramds wjoch[ass baclwards and forwards from the outer walls of the buccal chamber and the pharync to the body wall.
Pharynx.Buccl cavity leads into the pharynx which is a pearshaped wide swollen and muscular chamber it is continued slightly beyond the fourth segment buccal cavity is clearly separated from the pharynx by a groove in which dorsally a ceret ral ganglion is situated pharyngeal cavity is narroe and dorsoventrally compressed due to the presence of larg thick mass known pharyngeal mass or pharyngeal bulb which swpresses the phryngeal roof pharyngeal mass is made up of darkly stained irregular glandular cells or chromophil cells and muscle fibres.the glandular cells produce a salivary secretion which is poured into the cavity of the pharynx by means ofchannels of the pharyngeal mass the lateral phryngeal walls are pushed inside to form a horizontal shelf on ech side the two shelves thus divide the phryngeal cavity into a dorsal or salivary chamber and ventral or conducting chamber

RAT(RATTUS)

phylum- chordata.
class-mammlia.
1.Most wide spread rodents.
2.snout is elongated.
3.Incisors are long sharp chisel like and slightly curved. incisors re rootless one pair in each jaw.
4.Body is black or grey coverd with small soth hairs.
5.tail is long without hairs.
6.Adapred for various modes of lige viz arboresl terrestrial and undergrpund.
7.Rats are a great menace to mankind They are carriers of deveral disease germs viz cholera typhus rat bite fever plague jaundice tuberculosis of poulatry and trichinosis of swine.there are many type of rats viz shiop rat sewer rat house

RABBIT{oryctolagus or Lepus}

phylum-chordata.
class-mammalia.
1.leping mammal lives in grasslands.
2.warm blcoded or homiothermal animal.
3.jBody is bilaterally symmetrical and covered with short soft hairs the fur which is dusty brown in colour with a white patch under the tail.
4.The body is divisible into four regions (a)head; neck ;trunk; tail.
5.The snout possesses a number of special hairs called feelers or vibrissae or whiskers which are tactile organs.
6.Above the head there is a pair of long movable trumpet shaped external ears called pinnae.
7.Nares nd a pair of prominent eyes are also present in the head .
8.jTrunk is divisble into two anterior narrow thorax and posterior abdomen.
9.on theventral side of the trunk female possesses four or five pairs of teats or mammae.

FROG

phylum-chordata.
Genus-Rana.
species-tigrina.
Rana tigrina is the common indian frog which is found in fresh wter ponds ditches pools under stones and in damp p;aces except arid parts of the country the periods of its great activity re spring and rainy seadond As soon as the winter starts the activitiesof the frog cease and it becomes sluggish. Hibernation frogs are cold blooded animals or poikilothermal or ectothermal the temperature of the animals is not ccoustant but it varies according to the tempreture of the environment During winter the frog digs down into the damp earth at the atthe bottom of the ponds or in damp places almost near the source og lakes ponds or streams This is called as winter sleep or hiberation in this conditoon they lie in a dormant condition until the next spring the skin is moisttherefore respiration takes place through the skin.The general vital activities of the animal areso low that the little expenditure of the energy is needed to maintain life frog does not respire with the lungs the temperature of the body also becomes so low that it os only a few degrees above that of the surrounding medium frog does not take any food but maintains all itsphysiological activities at the expense of foos material stored in the tissues in the form of glycogen is very essential as certain amount of combustible material is required even when the temperature of the frog stored during the summer when frog feeds voraciously and it is expanded gradually through the wintermonths heart beating goes on during winter and various physiological activities are supported by the food during winter growth of thw sexul products increase at the expense of the other parts of the animal.

FIRE

Recently it has been found thte fire is one of the major ecological factors s it is part of normal climre.jTherefore bioticcommunities dapt and compensate for this factor .Odum (1971)writes that failure to recognize that ecosystems may be fire adapres has resulted in a great deal of mismanagement of mano of natural resources. He further mentions that properly used fire can be an ecological tool of great value the fire is an extremely important limiting factor as mankind is able to control it to a far greater extent than we can control mny other limiting factors Fire is very important especilly in forest and grassland regions of temperate zones in tropical areas with dry seasond protection forms fire hs resulted in ore productive environment for man the use of fire depends on its inteligent knowledge and control.

FASCIOLA(LIVER FLUKE)

Phylum- platyhelminthes.
class-Trematoda.
1.Body flattened leaf like covered with spines
2.Endoparasites living in two or more hosts
3.The anterior end has a projecting lobe called apical or head
4.At the apex of the head lobe is mouth which is surrounded by anterior sucker
5.Behind the head lobe is situated a ventral sucker or ace.

SHREW(suncus)

Phylum-chordata.
sub-phylum-Gnathostomata.
super-class-Tetrapoda.
class- Mammalia.
1.size small.
2.snout usually long and tapering.
3.Limbs five-toed provided with claws.
4.Teeth are sharp and pointed.
5.mouse like animals witch usually burrow.
6.Feed on insects smaller invertebrates and rodents.
7.Nocturnal in habit.
8.There is a poisonous substance in the saliva of the shrew which helps to capture the prey .

INTERNAL STRUCTURE OF HEART

ON removing the ventral wall the internal structure of the heart becomes clear, the two auricles are separated by septum called tnter-auricular septum ,It pronects to some extent in the ventricle and is so situated that the right auricle is guarded by two thin flap like auriculo -ventricular valves,one arises from the dorsal and the other from the ventral edge of the aperture.these valves are attached to the walls of ventricle by the fine chods of collagen fibres the chordae tendineae.when auricles contract both the valves are flapped backwards and allow the blood to flow into the venteicle .left auricle has opening of the pulmonary veln.The sinas-venosus opens into the right auricle by a transverse aperture called sinu-auricilar aperture having two lip like sinu auricular valves.with the help of these valves blood the auricle but reflux is prevented , the ventricle is thick muscular having severalprojections called columnae carnae.the ventricle into the truncus arteriosus.

ORGANS OF SIGHT

organs of sight or eye of frog are a pair of globular structures situated in the large oebits on both the sides of the head each eye is so plced that it can cover diffrent fields of vesion.The outermost layer is known as sclerotic , it consists of cartilage and dense white connective tissue .The sclerotic leeps the eye shape of the eye ball and serves as a surface for the attachment of the eye muscles,sclerotic is opaque but its anrerior part is tranaparent and is known as cornea.It is covered by a dlicate transparent membrane called the conjunctiva, which is formed by the eidermis and is continuous with the inner linings of the eye lids ,The conjunctiva is supplied with thin blood capillaries an is kept moist by the secretion of harderian glans which are situated in the orbit below the eye ball.Within the sclerotic is the choroid layer which is closely applied to the sclerotic.It consists of loose and higly vascular cinnective tissue having numerous dark pigment-cells.

STRUCTURE OF EYE

of all the organs of special senes the most important are compound eyes ,which are large and sessile situated on the sorsal surgaces of the head in the form of black kidney shaped patches in insects there are 2types of eyes (a)simple eyes or ocelli,(b)compound eyes or in cockroach each eye consists of about 2,000hexagonal facets or ommatidia which are covered externally by a tranaparent cuticle called the cornea, a single ommatidium consists of (1)corneallens or facet which is formed by the transparent cuticle,(2)A pair of corneagen cills which form the corneal lens (3)A refraactive crystalline cone encloced by four elongated conical cills called cone cells or vitrellae.(4)Distal pigment cell round the cone (5)Retinual cinsisting of eight cells forming a rhbdome.(6)Basal pigmint cill around the retunula,(7)The basement membrane.

HEAD

The head is a small triangular or pear shaped struture its narrow end is directed downwards it is flattened and is placed at right angles to the longitudinal axis of the body it is attached to the thorax by a narrow neck or cervicum. The thick chitinous cuticle covering the head is diveded into a number of plates . The exoskeleton of head which is formed by these plates is known as epicranium and it consists of five sclerites or hard areas there are two epicranial plates joined cover the dorsal and posterior sides of the head .The broad unpaired plate situated between and below the arms of the epicranil sutures is the frons. Below the frons is a broad unpaired rectngular pate the clypeus which forms the lower part of the head .There is a pair of plates covering the sides of the head behind and below the eyes which are called genae or cheeks. The upper lip or labrum is a flap like plate which is movably attached to the lower edge of the clypeus on wach side of the head is a large promient renuform i.e,kidney shaped sessile black area the compound eye .It is divided into a large number of minute hexagonal area or facets.There are four pairs appendages of the heah namely:

BAT

Phylum-chordata.
sub-phylum-Gnathostomata.
supreclass-Tetrapda.
class-Mammalia.
1.warm blooded vertebrates covered with hair on the body.
2.in fwmale mammary glands are found for sickling the young glands and mammary glands.
3.skin is rich in glands viz sweat glands sebaceous glands scent Genus-Rhinopoma(Bat)
A.flying mammals.
B.fore limbs and the second to fifth finger geratly elongated and supporting a thin mimbrane the web connects the digits to one another as well as the sides of the body and even to the hind legs and tail.
C.Hind limb is short with recurved claws.
D.Nocturnal animal during day it rests by hanging head down wardsin caves tree or ols buildings.
E.fruit eating ;herbivorouslfeeds on various fruits;especial liking is for guava and fig.

FUNAMBULUS(squirrel)

Pylum-chordata.
sub-pylum-Gnathostomata.
superclass-.tetrapoda.
class-Mammalia.
1.Gnawing animals-Dentition adapted for gnawing.
2.Libs with 5 toes wnding in claws.
3.Body elongared with three longitudenal stripes the on back.
4.Tail is long and bushy.
5.Diurnal rodents especially adapted for arboreal life.
6.Leada an active lifeon tree as w

PEACOCK

Pylum-chordata.
sub pylum-Gnathostomata.
supper class-Terapoda.
class-Aves.
1.National bird of India-native of India and Nepal exrends into sri Lanka .
2.the cock attains a lenght of 1.80 metres including 1.20 metres tail.
3.Bill is short.
4.feet adapted for scratching and running.
5.cock usally remains .
6.Nest is generally on the ground concealed with stick.
7.food of wold peacocks is snakes.
8.slow moving bird does not fly mich.
9.ornamental bird regard

OSTRICH

Phylim-chordata

sub-phylum-Gnathostomata.
supper class-Tetrapoda.
class-Aves.
1.Largest living flightles bird Male attains length upto 2.40metre height and weughs about 300lbs.female smaller.
2.cocouration is diffrent in bogh the sexes male has the head and neck almost bare and the body plumage of a glossy jet black and the tail feathers and wing quills white.
3.Both sexes possess short and stout beals.
4Foot hooks like two toed/
5.Legs bare and pink coloured.
6.Usualy one cock lives with small group of hen which helps in the incubation of eggs.
7.Eggs by several hens are laid in a comon nest.
8.Runs un a circle on hard soil.
9.Food is a varety of plant and animal matter mexed with stones.
10.commnly found in deserts of Arabia and Africa.
11.

TORTOISE

Phylum-chordata .
sub-phylum-Gnathostomata.
supper-class-Tetrapoda.
class-Reptilia.
1.Body enclosed in a shell or bony plates made of dorsal ovalcarapace.
2.limbs are terminated by claed dogits.
3.teeth absent jaws provided with horny investment.
4.the head can be completely withdrawn under the carapae.
5Tortoises are symbol of slowness, perseverance and longevity.
6.some tortois are edidble and are callesd Terrapins.

SALAMANDRA

Pylum -Chordta.
sub-Phylum-Ganathostomata.
Suppre-class-tetrapda.
class-Amphibia.
order-Urodela.
Genus-salamandra.
1.Tail preent throughout life.
2.Two pairs of limbs are present.
3.salamandr is the term applied to larger lizard-like species of urodela about 15.22cm.
4.vividly coliured skin is poisonous as it emits an irritating fluid.
5Appeears to be lizard but distinguishing feature is the presence of short limbs bearing four claeless fingers and five clawless toes.
6. Nocturnal andcarnivorous;possesses great power of regeneration.7. viviparuos form gives birth to living young onesinstesd of eggs.

CROCODILE

phylum-chordata.
sub-phylum-Gnathostomata.
Supper-class-Tetrapoda.
class-Reptilia.
1.Teeth arranged in distict sockets of a single row.
2.Depressed elongared body with a solid shield on the back .
3.Tail compressed laterally provided with crests longer than the trunk.
4.snout more than twice as long as broad at the base more or less triangular in apprarance.
5.Dorsal osteoderms are present.
6.carnivorous "crocodiles" it is said those which have never acquired a taste for it .
7.Timid animal in summer when tanks and marshes dry up.

COBRA

Phylum-chordata
Sub-phylum-Gnathostomata.
Supper-Class-Tetrapoda.
Class-Reptilia.
Order-Squamata.
1.Large cylindrical body with loose connections of jaw bones.
2.Limbs and other locomotory organs are absenr.
3.Tongue is long ,teeth are hooked eyelids and e.
4.Locomotion in the from of sode to side undulation.
5.Movable eyelids and external pinnae are absent.
6.Poisonous with presence of characteristic "fangs" which are modification of teeth.
8.Colour dorsally glistening black with white or yellow ceoss bars .
9.Common diet :rodents (rats mice etc)
10.Distributed in southern Africa or Asia including india China and Ceylon.
11.Characteristic presence of "hool"which in excoted condition is spread up by pushing outwards the long rib of neck.

APODA

Phylum-Chordata.
Sub-phylum-Gnathosmata.
supper-class-tetrapoda.
Class-Amphibia.
Order-Apoda.
1.limbs or girdles absent.
2. Slime glands and squirt glands found in skin.
3.slimy and smooth body .
4.Tail is extremely short.
5.Eyes small, hidden under the skin .
7.A small protrusible situated between the nostril and eye.
8.It is a common form of south East Asia including palaeotropical and neotropical regions.

THIRS GENERATION COMPUTER

This thirs generation computerircuits were introduced in 1964 they used integrated circuits (ICs)thes ICs are popularly known as chips a single IC has many transistors registers a sd capacitors buil on a single thin slice of soloxon so it is quite obvious that the size of the comoputer got further reduced some of the computer developed duting thi perios were IBM-360,ICL-1900,IBM-370and VAX-750 higher level languuage such as BSDIV(Brhommr sll purpose symvolic instructio n code) was developed during this period computers of this genetations were small in size low cost ;arge memory and peocessing speed is vety high

MECHANICAL AND ELRCTRICAL CALCULATOR

in this beginning of 19th century the mechanical malculator was derelopes to perform al sorts of mathematics calcilatioms up to the 1960s it was widely used later the rotating part of mechanical calculator was replaced by electric moter so it was calles the electrical calculator.
it was in the year 1823 that a famous English man charles babbage built a mechanical machice to do complex mathematical calculation . IT was called diffrent engi ne you should know that charles Babbage is called father of computer .

BABBAG E OF ANALYTICAL ENGINE

it was in the year 1823 that a famous English man charles babbage built a mechanical machice to do complex mathematical calculation . IT was called diffrent engi ne you should know that charles Babbage is called father of computer .

FIFTH GENERATION COMPUTERS

The computers of 1990s are said to be fifth genetayion computers the speed is extremely high in fifth generation computer apart from this it can perform parallel processing.

COMPUTER G ENERATION

ENIAC-It was the first electronic built in 1946 at university of pennsylvania USA by john Eckert and Mauchy It was namesd Electronic Numerical integrator and calcicatoe (ENIAC) was 30(50feet long weighed 30 tons contained 18,000vacuum trbes 70,000registers 10,000capacitors and required 150,000watts of electricity Tody your facoritre computer is many times as powerful as ENIC still size is very small.

COMPUTER GENERATION

FIRST GENERATION COMPUTER-first generation computers used thermion valves these computers were large in size and writing progrsms on them was difficilt some of the computers of this generation were.

CHA RATERISTICS OF COMPUTER

A. speed- As you know computer work very fast .
B. Accuracy-suppose some one faster but commits a lot of errors in computer .
C.Diligence- A computer is free from tiredness lack of concentration.

E.Power of remembering-Computer is a sunb machine a nd it cannot do any work.
R.NO IQ-Computer .D.Versatility-It mean the capacity to perrom complrtrly diffrent type of work.
G.Storage-The computer has an in built memory .

TYPE OF COMPUTER

1 microcomputre-is at the lowest end of the computer range in term of speed and strong capacity.
2 .Mini computer-this is desinrd to support more than one user at a time.
3 . mainframe -the types of computer are genetally 32-bit microprocrssor they operate at very hight speed.
4.supercomputer-they are the fastest and most expensive machines
extremelcomputers of 1990s are said to be fifth genetayion computers the speed is y high in fifth generTheation computer apart from this it can perform parallel processing.
ENIAC-It was the first electronic built in 1946 at university of pennsylvania USA by john Eckert and Mauchy It was namesd Electronic Numerical integrator and calcicatoe (ENIAC) was 30(50feet long weighed 30 tons contained 18,000vacuum trbes 70,000registers 10,000capacitors and required 150,000watts of electricity Tody your facoritre computer is many times as powerful as ENIC still size is very small.

HISTORY OF COMPUTER

EDSAC-It stansa for electrenic delay storage Automatic computer and was developed by M.Vwilkes at cambridge university in 1949.

UNIVAC-I: Ecker and Mauchly produces it in 1951 by universal accounnng computer setup.
history of mcomputer could be back to the effort of man to count large number this process of counting of large numbers generated varioous systrm of numeration lyje babylonian system of numeration Greek system od numeration Roman system of numeration and India system of numeratin out of this theIndia systemof numeration been accepted universally.